Daily Papers

The two most common paradigms for end-to-end speech recognition are connectionist temporal classification (CTC) and attention-based encoder-decoder (AED) models. It has been argued that the latter is better suited for learning an implicit language model. We test this hypothesis by measuring temporal context sensitivity and evaluate how the models perform when we constrain the amount of contextual information in the audio input. We find that the AED model is indeed more context sensitive, but that the gap can be closed by adding self-attention to the CTC model. Furthermore, the two models perform similarly when contextual information is constrained. Finally, in contrast to previous research, our results show that the CTC model is highly competitive on WSJ and LibriSpeech without the help of an external language model.

End-to-end (E2E) automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems have revolutionized the field by integrating all components into a single neural network, with attention-based encoder-decoder models achieving state-of-the-art performance. However, their autoregressive decoding process limits inference speed, making them unsuitable for real-time applications. In contrast, CTC-based models offer faster, non-autoregressive decoding but struggle to model linguistic dependencies effectively. Addressing this challenge, we propose a novel auxiliary loss framework called Language-Aware Intermediate Loss (LAIL) to enhance CTC-based ASR using the linguistic knowledge of large language models (LLMs). By attaching connector layers to intermediate encoder layers, LAIL maps outputs to the embedding space of an LLM and computes a causal language modeling loss during training. This approach enhances linguistic modeling while preserving the computational efficiency of CTC decoding. Using the Conformer architecture and various LLaMA models, we demonstrate significant improvements in Word Error Rate (WER) on the LibriSpeech, TEDLIUM2, and WSJ corpora, achieving state-of-the-art performance for CTC-based ASR with minimal computational overhead.

We explore deep autoregressive Transformer models in language modeling for speech recognition. We focus on two aspects. First, we revisit Transformer model configurations specifically for language modeling. We show that well configured Transformer models outperform our baseline models based on the shallow stack of LSTM recurrent neural network layers. We carry out experiments on the open-source LibriSpeech 960hr task, for both 200K vocabulary word-level and 10K byte-pair encoding subword-level language modeling. We apply our word-level models to conventional hybrid speech recognition by lattice rescoring, and the subword-level models to attention based encoder-decoder models by shallow fusion. Second, we show that deep Transformer language models do not require positional encoding. The positional encoding is an essential augmentation for the self-attention mechanism which is invariant to sequence ordering. However, in autoregressive setup, as is the case for language modeling, the amount of information increases along the position dimension, which is a positional signal by its own. The analysis of attention weights shows that deep autoregressive self-attention models can automatically make use of such positional information. We find that removing the positional encoding even slightly improves the performance of these models.

Recently, end-to-end models have been widely used in automatic speech recognition (ASR) systems. Two of the most representative approaches are connectionist temporal classification (CTC) and attention-based encoder-decoder (AED) models. Autoregressive transformers, variants of AED, adopt an autoregressive mechanism for token generation and thus are relatively slow during inference. In this paper, we present a comprehensive study of a CTC Alignment-based Single-Step Non-Autoregressive Transformer (CASS-NAT) for end-to-end ASR. In CASS-NAT, word embeddings in the autoregressive transformer (AT) are substituted with token-level acoustic embeddings (TAE) that are extracted from encoder outputs with the acoustical boundary information offered by the CTC alignment. TAE can be obtained in parallel, resulting in a parallel generation of output tokens. During training, Viterbi-alignment is used for TAE generation, and multiple training strategies are further explored to improve the word error rate (WER) performance. During inference, an error-based alignment sampling method is investigated in depth to reduce the alignment mismatch in the training and testing processes. Experimental results show that the CASS-NAT has a WER that is close to AT on various ASR tasks, while providing a ~24x inference speedup. With and without self-supervised learning, we achieve new state-of-the-art results for non-autoregressive models on several datasets. We also analyze the behavior of the CASS-NAT decoder to explain why it can perform similarly to AT. We find that TAEs have similar functionality to word embeddings for grammatical structures, which might indicate the possibility of learning some semantic information from TAEs without a language model.

We present FireRedASR, a family of large-scale automatic speech recognition (ASR) models for Mandarin, designed to meet diverse requirements in superior performance and optimal efficiency across various applications. FireRedASR comprises two variants: FireRedASR-LLM: Designed to achieve state-of-the-art (SOTA) performance and to enable seamless end-to-end speech interaction. It adopts an Encoder-Adapter-LLM framework leveraging large language model (LLM) capabilities. On public Mandarin benchmarks, FireRedASR-LLM (8.3B parameters) achieves an average Character Error Rate (CER) of 3.05%, surpassing the latest SOTA of 3.33% with an 8.4% relative CER reduction (CERR). It demonstrates superior generalization capability over industrial-grade baselines, achieving 24%-40% CERR in multi-source Mandarin ASR scenarios such as video, live, and intelligent assistant. FireRedASR-AED: Designed to balance high performance and computational efficiency and to serve as an effective speech representation module in LLM-based speech models. It utilizes an Attention-based Encoder-Decoder (AED) architecture. On public Mandarin benchmarks, FireRedASR-AED (1.1B parameters) achieves an average CER of 3.18%, slightly worse than FireRedASR-LLM but still outperforming the latest SOTA model with over 12B parameters. It offers a more compact size, making it suitable for resource-constrained applications. Moreover, both models exhibit competitive results on Chinese dialects and English speech benchmarks and excel in singing lyrics recognition. To advance research in speech processing, we release our models and inference code at https://github.com/FireRedTeam/FireRedASR.

Recognizing overlapping speech from multiple speakers in conversational scenarios is one of the most challenging problem for automatic speech recognition (ASR). Serialized output training (SOT) is a classic method to address multi-talker ASR, with the idea of concatenating transcriptions from multiple speakers according to the emission times of their speech for training. However, SOT-style transcriptions, derived from concatenating multiple related utterances in a conversation, depend significantly on modeling long contexts. Therefore, compared to traditional methods that primarily emphasize encoder performance in attention-based encoder-decoder (AED) architectures, a novel approach utilizing large language models (LLMs) that leverages the capabilities of pre-trained decoders may be better suited for such complex and challenging scenarios. In this paper, we propose an LLM-based SOT approach for multi-talker ASR, leveraging pre-trained speech encoder and LLM, fine-tuning them on multi-talker dataset using appropriate strategies. Experimental results demonstrate that our approach surpasses traditional AED-based methods on the simulated dataset LibriMix and achieves state-of-the-art performance on the evaluation set of the real-world dataset AMI, outperforming the AED model trained with 1000 times more supervised data in previous works.

Following the rationale of end-to-end modeling, CTC, RNN-T or encoder-decoder-attention models for automatic speech recognition (ASR) use graphemes or grapheme-based subword units based on e.g. byte-pair encoding (BPE). The mapping from pronunciation to spelling is learned completely from data. In contrast to this, classical approaches to ASR employ secondary knowledge sources in the form of phoneme lists to define phonetic output labels and pronunciation lexica. In this work, we do a systematic comparison between grapheme- and phoneme-based output labels for an encoder-decoder-attention ASR model. We investigate the use of single phonemes as well as BPE-based phoneme groups as output labels of our model. To preserve a simplified and efficient decoder design, we also extend the phoneme set by auxiliary units to be able to distinguish homophones. Experiments performed on the Switchboard 300h and LibriSpeech benchmarks show that phoneme-based modeling is competitive to grapheme-based encoder-decoder-attention modeling.

Image captioning, situated at the intersection of computer vision and natural language processing, requires a sophisticated understanding of both visual scenes and linguistic structure. While modern approaches are dominated by large-scale Transformer architectures, this paper documents a systematic, iterative development of foundational image captioning models, progressing from a simple CNN-LSTM encoder-decoder to a competitive attention-based system. This paper presents a series of five models, beginning with Genesis and concluding with Nexus, an advanced model featuring an EfficientNetV2B3 backbone and a dynamic attention mechanism. The experiments chart the impact of architectural enhancements and demonstrate a key finding within the classic CNN-LSTM paradigm: merely upgrading the visual backbone without a corresponding attention mechanism can degrade performance, as the single-vector bottleneck cannot transmit the richer visual detail. This insight validates the architectural shift to attention. Trained on the MS COCO 2017 dataset, the final model, Nexus, achieves a BLEU-4 score of 31.4, surpassing several foundational benchmarks and validating the iterative design process. This work provides a clear, replicable blueprint for understanding the core architectural principles that underpin modern vision-language tasks.

Knowledge-grounded dialogue systems aim to generate informative, contextually relevant responses by conditioning on external knowledge sources. However, most existing approaches focus exclusively on English, lack explicit citation mechanisms for verifying factual claims, and offer limited transparency into model decision-making. We present XKD-Dial, a progressive four-stage training pipeline for explainable, knowledge-grounded dialogue generation in a bilingual (English-Hindi) setting, comprising: (1) multilingual adaptation, (2) English dialogue SFT with citation grounding, (3) bilingual dialogue SFT, and (4) GRPO alignment with citation-aware rewards. We evaluate six models spanning encoder-decoder (250M-3B) and decoder-only (1B-7B) architectures at every pipeline stage. Our key contributions are: (i) three post-hoc explainability analyses - cross-attention alignment, Integrated Gradients attribution, and occlusion-based causal grounding - applied systematically across the training trajectory to reveal how citation behaviour is learned, not only whether it is learned; (ii) citation-grounded SFT reduces hallucination to 0.0% for encoder-decoder models from Stage 2 onward; (iii) the progressive pipeline prevents catastrophic forgetting while improving Hindi capabilities; (iv) smaller models match larger models on English after SFT; and (v) GRPO provides marginal improvement over well-designed SFT for structured citation tasks. We evaluate across six automatic metrics (BLEU, ROUGE, BERTScore, FactScore, Citation-F1, and hallucination rate).

This work proposes an attention-based sequence-to-sequence model for handwritten word recognition and explores transfer learning for data-efficient training of HTR systems. To overcome training data scarcity, this work leverages models pre-trained on scene text images as a starting point towards tailoring the handwriting recognition models. ResNet feature extraction and bidirectional LSTM-based sequence modeling stages together form an encoder. The prediction stage consists of a decoder and a content-based attention mechanism. The effectiveness of the proposed end-to-end HTR system has been empirically evaluated on a novel multi-writer dataset Imgur5K and the IAM dataset. The experimental results evaluate the performance of the HTR framework, further supported by an in-depth analysis of the error cases. Source code and pre-trained models are available at https://github.com/dmitrijsk/AttentionHTR.

ASR error correction is an interesting option for post processing speech recognition system outputs. These error correction models are usually trained in a supervised fashion using the decoding results of a target ASR system. This approach can be computationally intensive and the model is tuned to a specific ASR system. Recently generative large language models (LLMs) have been applied to a wide range of natural language processing tasks, as they can operate in a zero-shot or few shot fashion. In this paper we investigate using ChatGPT, a generative LLM, for ASR error correction. Based on the ASR N-best output, we propose both unconstrained and constrained, where a member of the N-best list is selected, approaches. Additionally, zero and 1-shot settings are evaluated. Experiments show that this generative LLM approach can yield performance gains for two different state-of-the-art ASR architectures, transducer and attention-encoder-decoder based, and multiple test sets.

Autoregressive Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved impressive performance in language tasks but face two significant bottlenecks: (1) quadratic complexity in the attention module as the number of tokens increases, and (2) limited efficiency due to the sequential processing nature of autoregressive LLMs during generation. While linear attention and speculative decoding offer potential solutions, their applicability and synergistic potential for enhancing autoregressive LLMs remain uncertain. We conduct the first comprehensive study on the efficacy of existing linear attention methods for autoregressive LLMs, integrating them with speculative decoding. We introduce an augmentation technique for linear attention that ensures compatibility with speculative decoding, enabling more efficient training and serving of LLMs. Extensive experiments and ablation studies involving seven existing linear attention models and five encoder/decoder-based LLMs consistently validate the effectiveness of our augmented linearized LLMs. Notably, our approach achieves up to a 6.67 reduction in perplexity on the LLaMA model and up to a 2times speedup during generation compared to prior linear attention methods. Codes and models are available at https://github.com/GATECH-EIC/Linearized-LLM.

The dominant sequence transduction models are based on complex recurrent or convolutional neural networks in an encoder-decoder configuration. The best performing models also connect the encoder and decoder through an attention mechanism. We propose a new simple network architecture, the Transformer, based solely on attention mechanisms, dispensing with recurrence and convolutions entirely. Experiments on two machine translation tasks show these models to be superior in quality while being more parallelizable and requiring significantly less time to train. Our model achieves 28.4 BLEU on the WMT 2014 English-to-German translation task, improving over the existing best results, including ensembles by over 2 BLEU. On the WMT 2014 English-to-French translation task, our model establishes a new single-model state-of-the-art BLEU score of 41.8 after training for 3.5 days on eight GPUs, a small fraction of the training costs of the best models from the literature. We show that the Transformer generalizes well to other tasks by applying it successfully to English constituency parsing both with large and limited training data.

Large Language Model (LLM) based text-to-speech (TTS) systems have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in handling large speech datasets and generating natural speech for new speakers. However, LLM-based TTS models are not robust as the generated output can contain repeating words, missing words and mis-aligned speech (referred to as hallucinations or attention errors), especially when the text contains multiple occurrences of the same token. We examine these challenges in an encoder-decoder transformer model and find that certain cross-attention heads in such models implicitly learn the text and speech alignment when trained for predicting speech tokens for a given text. To make the alignment more robust, we propose techniques utilizing CTC loss and attention priors that encourage monotonic cross-attention over the text tokens. Our guided attention training technique does not introduce any new learnable parameters and significantly improves robustness of LLM-based TTS models.

Decoder-based transformers, while revolutionizing language modeling and scaling to immense sizes, have not completely overtaken encoder-heavy architectures in natural language processing. Specifically, encoder-only models remain dominant in tasks like classification, regression, and ranking. This is primarily due to the inherent structure of decoder-based models, which limits their direct applicability to these tasks. In this paper, we introduce Gemma Encoder, adapting the powerful Gemma decoder model to an encoder architecture, thereby unlocking its potential for a wider range of non-generative applications. To optimize the adaptation from decoder to encoder, we systematically analyze various pooling strategies, attention mechanisms, and hyperparameters (e.g., dropout rate). Furthermore, we benchmark Gemma Encoder against established approaches on the GLUE benchmarks, and MS MARCO ranking benchmark, demonstrating its effectiveness and versatility.

High-quality semantic segmentation relies on three key capabilities: global context modeling, local detail encoding, and multi-scale feature extraction. However, recent methods struggle to possess all these capabilities simultaneously. Hence, we aim to empower segmentation networks to simultaneously carry out efficient global context modeling, high-quality local detail encoding, and rich multi-scale feature representation for varying input resolutions. In this paper, we introduce SegMAN, a novel linear-time model comprising a hybrid feature encoder dubbed SegMAN Encoder, and a decoder based on state space models. Specifically, the SegMAN Encoder synergistically integrates sliding local attention with dynamic state space models, enabling highly efficient global context modeling while preserving fine-grained local details. Meanwhile, the MMSCopE module in our decoder enhances multi-scale context feature extraction and adaptively scales with the input resolution. Our SegMAN-B Encoder achieves 85.1% ImageNet-1k accuracy (+1.5% over VMamba-S with fewer parameters). When paired with our decoder, the full SegMAN-B model achieves 52.6% mIoU on ADE20K (+1.6% over SegNeXt-L with 15% fewer GFLOPs), 83.8% mIoU on Cityscapes (+2.1% over SegFormer-B3 with half the GFLOPs), and 1.6% higher mIoU than VWFormer-B3 on COCO-Stuff with lower GFLOPs. Our code is available at https://github.com/yunxiangfu2001/SegMAN.

The Transformer architecture has become the de facto standard for Large Language Models (LLMs), demonstrating remarkable capabilities in language understanding and generation. However, its application in conversational AI is fundamentally constrained by its stateless nature and the quadratic computational complexity (O(L^2)) with respect to sequence length L. Current models emulate memory by reprocessing an ever-expanding conversation history with each turn, leading to prohibitive costs and latency in long dialogues. This paper introduces the Reactive Transformer (RxT), a novel architecture designed to overcome these limitations by shifting from a data-driven to an event-driven paradigm. RxT processes each conversational turn as a discrete event in real-time, maintaining context in an integrated, fixed-size Short-Term Memory (STM) system. The architecture features a distinct operational cycle where a generator-decoder produces a response based on the current query and the previous memory state, after which a memory-encoder and a dedicated Memory Attention network asynchronously update the STM with a representation of the complete interaction. This design fundamentally alters the scaling dynamics, reducing the total user-facing cost of a conversation from quadratic (O(N^2 cdot T)) to linear (O(N cdot T)) with respect to the number of interactions N. By decoupling response generation from memory updates, RxT achieves low latency, enabling truly real-time, stateful, and economically viable long-form conversations. We validated our architecture with a series of proof-of-concept experiments on synthetic data, demonstrating superior performance and constant-time inference latency compared to a baseline stateless model of comparable size.

Transducer and Attention based Encoder-Decoder (AED) are two widely used frameworks for speech-to-text tasks. They are designed for different purposes and each has its own benefits and drawbacks for speech-to-text tasks. In order to leverage strengths of both modeling methods, we propose a solution by combining Transducer and Attention based Encoder-Decoder (TAED) for speech-to-text tasks. The new method leverages AED's strength in non-monotonic sequence to sequence learning while retaining Transducer's streaming property. In the proposed framework, Transducer and AED share the same speech encoder. The predictor in Transducer is replaced by the decoder in the AED model, and the outputs of the decoder are conditioned on the speech inputs instead of outputs from an unconditioned language model. The proposed solution ensures that the model is optimized by covering all possible read/write scenarios and creates a matched environment for streaming applications. We evaluate the proposed approach on the MuST-C dataset and the findings demonstrate that TAED performs significantly better than Transducer for offline automatic speech recognition (ASR) and speech-to-text translation (ST) tasks. In the streaming case, TAED outperforms Transducer in the ASR task and one ST direction while comparable results are achieved in another translation direction.

Recently, most handwritten mathematical expression recognition (HMER) methods adopt the encoder-decoder networks, which directly predict the markup sequences from formula images with the attention mechanism. However, such methods may fail to accurately read formulas with complicated structure or generate long markup sequences, as the attention results are often inaccurate due to the large variance of writing styles or spatial layouts. To alleviate this problem, we propose an unconventional network for HMER named Counting-Aware Network (CAN), which jointly optimizes two tasks: HMER and symbol counting. Specifically, we design a weakly-supervised counting module that can predict the number of each symbol class without the symbol-level position annotations, and then plug it into a typical attention-based encoder-decoder model for HMER. Experiments on the benchmark datasets for HMER validate that both joint optimization and counting results are beneficial for correcting the prediction errors of encoder-decoder models, and CAN consistently outperforms the state-of-the-art methods. In particular, compared with an encoder-decoder model for HMER, the extra time cost caused by the proposed counting module is marginal. The source code is available at https://github.com/LBH1024/CAN.

Selective state space models (SSMs) represented by Mamba have demonstrated their computational efficiency and promising outcomes in various tasks, including automatic speech recognition (ASR). Mamba has been applied to ASR task with the attention-based encoder-decoder framework, where the cross-attention mechanism between encoder and decoder remains. This paper explores the capability of Mamba as the decoder-only architecture in ASR task. Our MAmba-based DEcoder-ONly approach (MADEON) consists of a single decoder that takes speech tokens as a condition and predicts text tokens in an autoregressive manner. To enhance MADEON, we further propose speech prefixing that performs bidirectional processing on speech tokens, which enriches the contextual information in the hidden states. Our experiments show that MADEON significantly outperforms a non-selective SSM. The combination of speech prefixing and the recently proposed Mamba-2 yields comparable performance to Transformer-based models on large datasets.

We present a state-of-the-art end-to-end Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) model. We learn to listen and write characters with a joint Connectionist Temporal Classification (CTC) and attention-based encoder-decoder network. The encoder is a deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) based on the VGG network. The CTC network sits on top of the encoder and is jointly trained with the attention-based decoder. During the beam search process, we combine the CTC predictions, the attention-based decoder predictions and a separately trained LSTM language model. We achieve a 5-10\% error reduction compared to prior systems on spontaneous Japanese and Chinese speech, and our end-to-end model beats out traditional hybrid ASR systems.

Video repetition counting infers the number of repetitions of recurring actions or motion within a video. We propose an exemplar-based approach that discovers visual correspondence of video exemplars across repetitions within target videos. Our proposed Every Shot Counts (ESCounts) model is an attention-based encoder-decoder that encodes videos of varying lengths alongside exemplars from the same and different videos. In training, ESCounts regresses locations of high correspondence to the exemplars within the video. In tandem, our method learns a latent that encodes representations of general repetitive motions, which we use for exemplar-free, zero-shot inference. Extensive experiments over commonly used datasets (RepCount, Countix, and UCFRep) showcase ESCounts obtaining state-of-the-art performance across all three datasets. Detailed ablations further demonstrate the effectiveness of our method.

Arabic handwritten text recognition (HTR) is challenging, especially for historical texts, due to diverse writing styles and the intrinsic features of Arabic script. Additionally, Arabic handwriting datasets are smaller compared to English ones, making it difficult to train generalizable Arabic HTR models. To address these challenges, we propose HATFormer, a transformer-based encoder-decoder architecture that builds on a state-of-the-art English HTR model. By leveraging the transformer's attention mechanism, HATFormer captures spatial contextual information to address the intrinsic challenges of Arabic script through differentiating cursive characters, decomposing visual representations, and identifying diacritics. Our customization to historical handwritten Arabic includes an image processor for effective ViT information preprocessing, a text tokenizer for compact Arabic text representation, and a training pipeline that accounts for a limited amount of historic Arabic handwriting data. HATFormer achieves a character error rate (CER) of 8.6% on the largest public historical handwritten Arabic dataset, with a 51% improvement over the best baseline in the literature. HATFormer also attains a comparable CER of 4.2% on the largest private non-historical dataset. Our work demonstrates the feasibility of adapting an English HTR method to a low-resource language with complex, language-specific challenges, contributing to advancements in document digitization, information retrieval, and cultural preservation.

We present the InterviewBot that dynamically integrates conversation history and customized topics into a coherent embedding space to conduct 10 mins hybrid-domain (open and closed) conversations with foreign students applying to U.S. colleges for assessing their academic and cultural readiness. To build a neural-based end-to-end dialogue model, 7,361 audio recordings of human-to-human interviews are automatically transcribed, where 440 are manually corrected for finetuning and evaluation. To overcome the input/output size limit of a transformer-based encoder-decoder model, two new methods are proposed, context attention and topic storing, allowing the model to make relevant and consistent interactions. Our final model is tested both statistically by comparing its responses to the interview data and dynamically by inviting professional interviewers and various students to interact with it in real-time, finding it highly satisfactory in fluency and context awareness.

Sign language recognition has attracted the interest of researchers in recent years. While numerous approaches have been proposed for European and Asian sign languages recognition, very limited attempts have been made to develop similar systems for the Arabic sign language (ArSL). This can be attributed partly to the lack of a dataset at the sentence level. In this paper, we aim to make a significant contribution by proposing ArabSign, a continuous ArSL dataset. The proposed dataset consists of 9,335 samples performed by 6 signers. The total time of the recorded sentences is around 10 hours and the average sentence's length is 3.1 signs. ArabSign dataset was recorded using a Kinect V2 camera that provides three types of information (color, depth, and skeleton joint points) recorded simultaneously for each sentence. In addition, we provide the annotation of the dataset according to ArSL and Arabic language structures that can help in studying the linguistic characteristics of ArSL. To benchmark this dataset, we propose an encoder-decoder model for Continuous ArSL recognition. The model has been evaluated on the proposed dataset, and the obtained results show that the encoder-decoder model outperformed the attention mechanism with an average word error rate (WER) of 0.50 compared with 0.62 with the attention mechanism. The data and code are available at github.com/Hamzah-Luqman/ArabSign

Important information that relates to a specific topic in a document is often organized in tabular format to assist readers with information retrieval and comparison, which may be difficult to provide in natural language. However, tabular data in unstructured digital documents, e.g., Portable Document Format (PDF) and images, are difficult to parse into structured machine-readable format, due to complexity and diversity in their structure and style. To facilitate image-based table recognition with deep learning, we develop the largest publicly available table recognition dataset PubTabNet (https://github.com/ibm-aur-nlp/PubTabNet), containing 568k table images with corresponding structured HTML representation. PubTabNet is automatically generated by matching the XML and PDF representations of the scientific articles in PubMed Central Open Access Subset (PMCOA). We also propose a novel attention-based encoder-dual-decoder (EDD) architecture that converts images of tables into HTML code. The model has a structure decoder which reconstructs the table structure and helps the cell decoder to recognize cell content. In addition, we propose a new Tree-Edit-Distance-based Similarity (TEDS) metric for table recognition, which more appropriately captures multi-hop cell misalignment and OCR errors than the pre-established metric. The experiments demonstrate that the EDD model can accurately recognize complex tables solely relying on the image representation, outperforming the state-of-the-art by 9.7% absolute TEDS score.

Recent advances in speech recognition and translation rely on hundreds of thousands of hours of Internet speech data. We argue that state-of-the art accuracy can be reached without relying on web-scale data. Canary - multilingual ASR and speech translation model, outperforms current state-of-the-art models - Whisper, OWSM, and Seamless-M4T on English, French, Spanish, and German languages, while being trained on an order of magnitude less data than these models. Three key factors enables such data-efficient model: (1) a FastConformer-based attention encoder-decoder architecture (2) training on synthetic data generated with machine translation and (3) advanced training techniques: data-balancing, dynamic data blending, dynamic bucketing and noise-robust fine-tuning. The model, weights, and training code will be open-sourced.

In this work, we present the development of a reverse transliteration model to convert romanized Malayalam to native script using an encoder-decoder framework built with attention-based bidirectional Long Short Term Memory (Bi-LSTM) architecture. To train the model, we have used curated and combined collection of 4.3 million transliteration pairs derived from publicly available Indic language translitertion datasets, Dakshina and Aksharantar. We evaluated the model on two different test dataset provided by IndoNLP-2025-Shared-Task that contain, (1) General typing patterns and (2) Adhoc typing patterns, respectively. On the Test Set-1, we obtained a character error rate (CER) of 7.4%. However upon Test Set-2, with adhoc typing patterns, where most vowel indicators are missing, our model gave a CER of 22.7%.

We present a neural encoder-decoder model to convert images into presentational markup based on a scalable coarse-to-fine attention mechanism. Our method is evaluated in the context of image-to-LaTeX generation, and we introduce a new dataset of real-world rendered mathematical expressions paired with LaTeX markup. We show that unlike neural OCR techniques using CTC-based models, attention-based approaches can tackle this non-standard OCR task. Our approach outperforms classical mathematical OCR systems by a large margin on in-domain rendered data, and, with pretraining, also performs well on out-of-domain handwritten data. To reduce the inference complexity associated with the attention-based approaches, we introduce a new coarse-to-fine attention layer that selects a support region before applying attention.

Neural end-to-end TTS can generate very high-quality synthesized speech, and even close to human recording within similar domain text. However, it performs unsatisfactory when scaling it to challenging test sets. One concern is that the encoder-decoder with attention-based network adopts autoregressive generative sequence model with the limitation of "exposure bias" To address this issue, we propose two novel methods, which learn to predict future by improving agreement between forward and backward decoding sequence. The first one is achieved by introducing divergence regularization terms into model training objective to reduce the mismatch between two directional models, namely L2R and R2L (which generates targets from left-to-right and right-to-left, respectively). While the second one operates on decoder-level and exploits the future information during decoding. In addition, we employ a joint training strategy to allow forward and backward decoding to improve each other in an interactive process. Experimental results show our proposed methods especially the second one (bidirectional decoder regularization), leads a significantly improvement on both robustness and overall naturalness, as outperforming baseline (the revised version of Tacotron2) with a MOS gap of 0.14 in a challenging test, and achieving close to human quality (4.42 vs. 4.49 in MOS) on general test.

Scene text recognition has attracted a great many researches due to its importance to various applications. Existing methods mainly adopt recurrence or convolution based networks. Though have obtained good performance, these methods still suffer from two limitations: slow training speed due to the internal recurrence of RNNs, and high complexity due to stacked convolutional layers for long-term feature extraction. This paper, for the first time, proposes a no-recurrence sequence-to-sequence text recognizer, named NRTR, that dispenses with recurrences and convolutions entirely. NRTR follows the encoder-decoder paradigm, where the encoder uses stacked self-attention to extract image features, and the decoder applies stacked self-attention to recognize texts based on encoder output. NRTR relies solely on self-attention mechanism thus could be trained with more parallelization and less complexity. Considering scene image has large variation in text and background, we further design a modality-transform block to effectively transform 2D input images to 1D sequences, combined with the encoder to extract more discriminative features. NRTR achieves state-of-the-art or highly competitive performance on both regular and irregular benchmarks, while requires only a small fraction of training time compared to the best model from the literature (at least 8 times faster).

Neural network based end-to-end text to speech (TTS) has significantly improved the quality of synthesized speech. Prominent methods (e.g., Tacotron 2) usually first generate mel-spectrogram from text, and then synthesize speech from the mel-spectrogram using vocoder such as WaveNet. Compared with traditional concatenative and statistical parametric approaches, neural network based end-to-end models suffer from slow inference speed, and the synthesized speech is usually not robust (i.e., some words are skipped or repeated) and lack of controllability (voice speed or prosody control). In this work, we propose a novel feed-forward network based on Transformer to generate mel-spectrogram in parallel for TTS. Specifically, we extract attention alignments from an encoder-decoder based teacher model for phoneme duration prediction, which is used by a length regulator to expand the source phoneme sequence to match the length of the target mel-spectrogram sequence for parallel mel-spectrogram generation. Experiments on the LJSpeech dataset show that our parallel model matches autoregressive models in terms of speech quality, nearly eliminates the problem of word skipping and repeating in particularly hard cases, and can adjust voice speed smoothly. Most importantly, compared with autoregressive Transformer TTS, our model speeds up mel-spectrogram generation by 270x and the end-to-end speech synthesis by 38x. Therefore, we call our model FastSpeech.

Many machine learning tasks such as multiple instance learning, 3D shape recognition, and few-shot image classification are defined on sets of instances. Since solutions to such problems do not depend on the order of elements of the set, models used to address them should be permutation invariant. We present an attention-based neural network module, the Set Transformer, specifically designed to model interactions among elements in the input set. The model consists of an encoder and a decoder, both of which rely on attention mechanisms. In an effort to reduce computational complexity, we introduce an attention scheme inspired by inducing point methods from sparse Gaussian process literature. It reduces the computation time of self-attention from quadratic to linear in the number of elements in the set. We show that our model is theoretically attractive and we evaluate it on a range of tasks, demonstrating the state-of-the-art performance compared to recent methods for set-structured data.

In this work, we present CleanUNet, a causal speech denoising model on the raw waveform. The proposed model is based on an encoder-decoder architecture combined with several self-attention blocks to refine its bottleneck representations, which is crucial to obtain good results. The model is optimized through a set of losses defined over both waveform and multi-resolution spectrograms. The proposed method outperforms the state-of-the-art models in terms of denoised speech quality from various objective and subjective evaluation metrics. We release our code and models at https://github.com/nvidia/cleanunet.

We present ENSAM (Equivariant, Normalized, Segment Anything Model), a lightweight and promptable model for universal 3D medical image segmentation. ENSAM combines a SegResNet-based encoder with a prompt encoder and mask decoder in a U-Net-style architecture, using latent cross-attention, relative positional encoding, normalized attention, and the Muon optimizer for training. ENSAM is designed to achieve good performance under limited data and computational budgets, and is trained from scratch on under 5,000 volumes from multiple modalities (CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound, microscopy) on a single 32 GB GPU in 6 hours. As part of the CVPR 2025 Foundation Models for Interactive 3D Biomedical Image Segmentation Challenge, ENSAM was evaluated on hidden test set with multimodal 3D medical images, obtaining a DSC AUC of 2.404, NSD AUC of 2.266, final DSC of 0.627, and final NSD of 0.597, outperforming two previously published baseline models (VISTA3D, SAM-Med3D) and matching the third (SegVol), surpassing its performance in final DSC but trailing behind in the other three metrics. In the coreset track of the challenge, ENSAM ranks 5th of 10 overall and best among the approaches not utilizing pretrained weights. Ablation studies confirm that our use of relative positional encodings and the Muon optimizer each substantially speed up convergence and improve segmentation quality.

Describing images with text is a fundamental problem in vision-language research. Current studies in this domain mostly focus on single image captioning. However, in various real applications (e.g., image editing, difference interpretation, and retrieval), generating relational captions for two images, can also be very useful. This important problem has not been explored mostly due to lack of datasets and effective models. To push forward the research in this direction, we first introduce a new language-guided image editing dataset that contains a large number of real image pairs with corresponding editing instructions. We then propose a new relational speaker model based on an encoder-decoder architecture with static relational attention and sequential multi-head attention. We also extend the model with dynamic relational attention, which calculates visual alignment while decoding. Our models are evaluated on our newly collected and two public datasets consisting of image pairs annotated with relationship sentences. Experimental results, based on both automatic and human evaluation, demonstrate that our model outperforms all baselines and existing methods on all the datasets.

Transformers are increasingly dominating multi-modal reasoning tasks, such as visual question answering, achieving state-of-the-art results thanks to their ability to contextualize information using the self-attention and co-attention mechanisms. These attention modules also play a role in other computer vision tasks including object detection and image segmentation. Unlike Transformers that only use self-attention, Transformers with co-attention require to consider multiple attention maps in parallel in order to highlight the information that is relevant to the prediction in the model's input. In this work, we propose the first method to explain prediction by any Transformer-based architecture, including bi-modal Transformers and Transformers with co-attentions. We provide generic solutions and apply these to the three most commonly used of these architectures: (i) pure self-attention, (ii) self-attention combined with co-attention, and (iii) encoder-decoder attention. We show that our method is superior to all existing methods which are adapted from single modality explainability.

The sequence-to-sequence (seq2seq) task aims at generating the target sequence based on the given input source sequence. Traditionally, most of the seq2seq task is resolved by the Encoder-Decoder framework which requires an encoder to encode the source sequence and a decoder to generate the target text. Recently, a bunch of new approaches have emerged that apply decoder-only language models directly to the seq2seq task. Despite the significant advancements in applying language models to the seq2seq task, there is still a lack of thorough analysis on the effectiveness of the decoder-only language model architecture. This paper aims to address this gap by conducting a detailed comparison between the encoder-decoder architecture and the decoder-only language model framework through the analysis of a regularized encoder-decoder structure. This structure is designed to replicate all behaviors in the classical decoder-only language model but has an encoder and a decoder making it easier to be compared with the classical encoder-decoder structure. Based on the analysis, we unveil the attention degeneration problem in the language model, namely, as the generation step number grows, less and less attention is focused on the source sequence. To give a quantitative understanding of this problem, we conduct a theoretical sensitivity analysis of the attention output with respect to the source input. Grounded on our analysis, we propose a novel partial attention language model to solve the attention degeneration problem. Experimental results on machine translation, summarization, and data-to-text generation tasks support our analysis and demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed model.

We propose a novel transformer-based styled handwritten text image generation approach, HWT, that strives to learn both style-content entanglement as well as global and local writing style patterns. The proposed HWT captures the long and short range relationships within the style examples through a self-attention mechanism, thereby encoding both global and local style patterns. Further, the proposed transformer-based HWT comprises an encoder-decoder attention that enables style-content entanglement by gathering the style representation of each query character. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to introduce a transformer-based generative network for styled handwritten text generation. Our proposed HWT generates realistic styled handwritten text images and significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art demonstrated through extensive qualitative, quantitative and human-based evaluations. The proposed HWT can handle arbitrary length of text and any desired writing style in a few-shot setting. Further, our HWT generalizes well to the challenging scenario where both words and writing style are unseen during training, generating realistic styled handwritten text images.

Despite the great success of Large Vision-Language Models (LVLMs), they inevitably suffer from hallucination. As we know, both the visual encoder and the Large Language Model (LLM) decoder in LVLMs are Transformer-based, allowing the model to extract visual information and generate text outputs via attention mechanisms. We find that the attention distribution of LLM decoder on image tokens is highly consistent with the visual encoder and both distributions tend to focus on particular background tokens rather than the referred objects in the image. We attribute to the unexpected attention distribution to an inherent flaw in the visual encoder itself, which misguides LLMs to over emphasize the redundant information and generate object hallucination. To address the issue, we propose DAMRO, a novel training-free strategy that Dive into Attention Mechanism of LVLM to Reduce Object Hallucination. Specifically, our approach employs classification token (CLS) of ViT to filter out high-attention outlier tokens scattered in the background and then eliminate their influence during decoding stage. We evaluate our method on LVLMs including LLaVA-1.5, LLaVA-NeXT and InstructBLIP, using various benchmarks such as POPE, CHAIR, MME and GPT-4V Aided Evaluation. The results demonstrate that our approach significantly reduces the impact of these outlier tokens, thus effectively alleviating the hallucination of LVLMs. The code of our method will be released soon.

In this paper, we propose a novel text promptable surgical instrument segmentation approach to overcome challenges associated with diversity and differentiation of surgical instruments in minimally invasive surgeries. We redefine the task as text promptable, thereby enabling a more nuanced comprehension of surgical instruments and adaptability to new instrument types. Inspired by recent advancements in vision-language models, we leverage pretrained image and text encoders as our model backbone and design a text promptable mask decoder consisting of attention- and convolution-based prompting schemes for surgical instrument segmentation prediction. Our model leverages multiple text prompts for each surgical instrument through a new mixture of prompts mechanism, resulting in enhanced segmentation performance. Additionally, we introduce a hard instrument area reinforcement module to improve image feature comprehension and segmentation precision. Extensive experiments on EndoVis2017 and EndoVis2018 datasets demonstrate our model's superior performance and promising generalization capability. To our knowledge, this is the first implementation of a promptable approach to surgical instrument segmentation, offering significant potential for practical application in the field of robotic-assisted surgery.

This paper provides a novel 3D medical image segmentation model structure called nnY-Net. This name comes from the fact that our model adds a cross-attention module at the bottom of the U-net structure to form a Y structure. We integrate the advantages of the two latest SOTA models, MedNeXt and SwinUNETR, and use Swin Transformer as the encoder and ConvNeXt as the decoder to innovatively design the Swin-NeXt structure. Our model uses the lowest-level feature map of the encoder as Key and Value and uses patient features such as pathology and treatment information as Query to calculate the attention weights in a Cross Attention module. Moreover, we simplify some pre- and post-processing as well as data enhancement methods in 3D image segmentation based on the dynUnet and nnU-net frameworks. We integrate our proposed Swin-NeXt with Cross-Attention framework into this framework. Last, we construct a DiceFocalCELoss to improve the training efficiency for the uneven data convergence of voxel classification.

Information extraction from handwritten documents involves traditionally three distinct steps: Document Layout Analysis, Handwritten Text Recognition, and Named Entity Recognition. Recent approaches have attempted to integrate these steps into a single process using fully end-to-end architectures. Despite this, these integrated approaches have not yet matched the performance of language models, when applied to information extraction in plain text. In this paper, we introduce DANIEL (Document Attention Network for Information Extraction and Labelling), a fully end-to-end architecture integrating a language model and designed for comprehensive handwritten document understanding. DANIEL performs layout recognition, handwriting recognition, and named entity recognition on full-page documents. Moreover, it can simultaneously learn across multiple languages, layouts, and tasks. For named entity recognition, the ontology to be applied can be specified via the input prompt. The architecture employs a convolutional encoder capable of processing images of any size without resizing, paired with an autoregressive decoder based on a transformer-based language model. DANIEL achieves competitive results on four datasets, including a new state-of-the-art performance on RIMES 2009 and M-POPP for Handwriting Text Recognition, and IAM NER for Named Entity Recognition. Furthermore, DANIEL is much faster than existing approaches. We provide the source code and the weights of the trained models at https://github.com/Shulk97/daniel.

Attentional, RNN-based encoder-decoder models for abstractive summarization have achieved good performance on short input and output sequences. For longer documents and summaries however these models often include repetitive and incoherent phrases. We introduce a neural network model with a novel intra-attention that attends over the input and continuously generated output separately, and a new training method that combines standard supervised word prediction and reinforcement learning (RL). Models trained only with supervised learning often exhibit "exposure bias" - they assume ground truth is provided at each step during training. However, when standard word prediction is combined with the global sequence prediction training of RL the resulting summaries become more readable. We evaluate this model on the CNN/Daily Mail and New York Times datasets. Our model obtains a 41.16 ROUGE-1 score on the CNN/Daily Mail dataset, an improvement over previous state-of-the-art models. Human evaluation also shows that our model produces higher quality summaries.

Motion forecasting for autonomous driving is a challenging task because complex driving scenarios result in a heterogeneous mix of static and dynamic inputs. It is an open problem how best to represent and fuse information about road geometry, lane connectivity, time-varying traffic light state, and history of a dynamic set of agents and their interactions into an effective encoding. To model this diverse set of input features, many approaches proposed to design an equally complex system with a diverse set of modality specific modules. This results in systems that are difficult to scale, extend, or tune in rigorous ways to trade off quality and efficiency. In this paper, we present Wayformer, a family of attention based architectures for motion forecasting that are simple and homogeneous. Wayformer offers a compact model description consisting of an attention based scene encoder and a decoder. In the scene encoder we study the choice of early, late and hierarchical fusion of the input modalities. For each fusion type we explore strategies to tradeoff efficiency and quality via factorized attention or latent query attention. We show that early fusion, despite its simplicity of construction, is not only modality agnostic but also achieves state-of-the-art results on both Waymo Open MotionDataset (WOMD) and Argoverse leaderboards, demonstrating the effectiveness of our design philosophy

Attention Model has now become an important concept in neural networks that has been researched within diverse application domains. This survey provides a structured and comprehensive overview of the developments in modeling attention. In particular, we propose a taxonomy which groups existing techniques into coherent categories. We review salient neural architectures in which attention has been incorporated, and discuss applications in which modeling attention has shown a significant impact. We also describe how attention has been used to improve the interpretability of neural networks. Finally, we discuss some future research directions in attention. We hope this survey will provide a succinct introduction to attention models and guide practitioners while developing approaches for their applications.

We present Neural Attention Search (NAtS), a framework that automatically evaluates the importance of each token within a sequence and determines if the corresponding token can be dropped after several steps. This approach can efficiently reduce the KV cache sizes required by transformer-based models during inference and thus reduce inference costs. In this paper, we design a search space that contains three token types: (i) Global Tokens will be preserved and queried by all the following tokens. (ii) Local Tokens survive until the next global token appears. (iii) Sliding Window Tokens have an impact on the inference of a fixed size of the next following tokens. Similar to the One-Shot Neural Architecture Search approach, this token-type information can be learned jointly with the architecture weights via a learnable attention mask. Experiments on both training a new transformer from scratch and fine-tuning existing large language models show that NAtS can efficiently reduce the KV cache size required for the models while maintaining the models' performance.

Inspired by recent work in machine translation and object detection, we introduce an attention based model that automatically learns to describe the content of images. We describe how we can train this model in a deterministic manner using standard backpropagation techniques and stochastically by maximizing a variational lower bound. We also show through visualization how the model is able to automatically learn to fix its gaze on salient objects while generating the corresponding words in the output sequence. We validate the use of attention with state-of-the-art performance on three benchmark datasets: Flickr8k, Flickr30k and MS COCO.

The Transformer architecture processes sequences by implementing a form of neural message-passing that consists of iterative information retrieval (attention), followed by local processing (position-wise MLP). Two types of information are essential under this general computational paradigm: "sensory" information about individual objects, and "relational" information describing the relationships between objects. Standard attention naturally encodes the former, but does not explicitly encode the latter. In this paper, we present an extension of Transformers where multi-head attention is augmented with two distinct types of attention heads, each routing information of a different type. The first type is the standard attention mechanism of Transformers, which captures object-level features, while the second type is a novel attention mechanism we propose to explicitly capture relational information. The two types of attention heads each possess different inductive biases, giving the resulting architecture greater efficiency and versatility. The promise of this approach is demonstrated empirically across a range of tasks.

In multi-source sequence-to-sequence tasks, the attention mechanism can be modeled in several ways. This topic has been thoroughly studied on recurrent architectures. In this paper, we extend the previous work to the encoder-decoder attention in the Transformer architecture. We propose four different input combination strategies for the encoder-decoder attention: serial, parallel, flat, and hierarchical. We evaluate our methods on tasks of multimodal translation and translation with multiple source languages. The experiments show that the models are able to use multiple sources and improve over single source baselines.

Transformer models typically calculate attention matrices using dot products, which have limitations when capturing nonlinear relationships between embedding vectors. We propose Neural Attention, a technique that replaces dot products with feed-forward networks, enabling a more expressive representation of relationships between tokens. This approach modifies only the attention matrix calculation while preserving the matrix dimensions, making it easily adaptable to existing transformer-based architectures. We provide a detailed mathematical justification for why Neural Attention increases representational capacity and conduct controlled experiments to validate this claim. When comparing Neural Attention and Dot-Product Attention, NLP experiments on WikiText-103 show a reduction in perplexity of over 5 percent. Similarly, experiments on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 show comparable improvements for image classification tasks. While Neural Attention introduces higher computational demands, we develop techniques to mitigate these challenges, ensuring practical usability without sacrificing the increased expressivity it provides. This work establishes Neural Attention as an effective means of enhancing the predictive capabilities of transformer models across a variety of applications.

Attention-based mechanisms are widely used in machine learning, most prominently in transformers. However, hyperparameters such as the rank of the attention matrices and the number of heads are scaled nearly the same way in all realizations of this architecture, without theoretical justification. In this work we show that there are dramatic trade-offs between the rank and number of heads of the attention mechanism. Specifically, we present a simple and natural target function that can be represented using a single full-rank attention head for any context length, but that cannot be approximated by low-rank attention unless the number of heads is exponential in the embedding dimension, even for short context lengths. Moreover, we prove that, for short context lengths, adding depth allows the target to be approximated by low-rank attention. For long contexts, we conjecture that full-rank attention is necessary. Finally, we present experiments with off-the-shelf transformers that validate our theoretical findings.

We introduce three new attention mechanisms that outperform standard multi-head attention in terms of efficiency and learning capabilities, thereby improving the performance and broader deployability of Transformer models. Our first contribution is Optimised Attention, which performs similarly to standard attention, but has 3/4 as many parameters and one matrix multiplication fewer per head. Next, we introduce Efficient Attention, which performs on par with standard attention with only 1/2 as many parameters as many parameters and two matrix multiplications fewer per head and is up to twice as fast as standard attention. Lastly, we introduce Super Attention, which surpasses standard attention by a significant margin in both vision and natural language processing tasks while having fewer parameters and matrix multiplications. In addition to providing rigorous mathematical comparisons, we evaluate the presented attention mechanisms on MNIST, CIFAR100, IMDB Movie Reviews, and Amazon Reviews datasets.

Current state-of-the-art machine translation systems are based on encoder-decoder architectures, that first encode the input sequence, and then generate an output sequence based on the input encoding. Both are interfaced with an attention mechanism that recombines a fixed encoding of the source tokens based on the decoder state. We propose an alternative approach which instead relies on a single 2D convolutional neural network across both sequences. Each layer of our network re-codes source tokens on the basis of the output sequence produced so far. Attention-like properties are therefore pervasive throughout the network. Our model yields excellent results, outperforming state-of-the-art encoder-decoder systems, while being conceptually simpler and having fewer parameters.

This paper introduces an efficient and robust method for discovering interpretable circuits in large language models using discrete sparse autoencoders. Our approach addresses key limitations of existing techniques, namely computational complexity and sensitivity to hyperparameters. We propose training sparse autoencoders on carefully designed positive and negative examples, where the model can only correctly predict the next token for the positive examples. We hypothesise that learned representations of attention head outputs will signal when a head is engaged in specific computations. By discretising the learned representations into integer codes and measuring the overlap between codes unique to positive examples for each head, we enable direct identification of attention heads involved in circuits without the need for expensive ablations or architectural modifications. On three well-studied tasks - indirect object identification, greater-than comparisons, and docstring completion - the proposed method achieves higher precision and recall in recovering ground-truth circuits compared to state-of-the-art baselines, while reducing runtime from hours to seconds. Notably, we require only 5-10 text examples for each task to learn robust representations. Our findings highlight the promise of discrete sparse autoencoders for scalable and efficient mechanistic interpretability, offering a new direction for analysing the inner workings of large language models.

The quadratic computational and memory complexities of large Transformers have limited their scalability for long document summarization. In this paper, we propose Hepos, a novel efficient encoder-decoder attention with head-wise positional strides to effectively pinpoint salient information from the source. We further conduct a systematic study of existing efficient self-attentions. Combined with Hepos, we are able to process ten times more tokens than existing models that use full attentions. For evaluation, we present a new dataset, GovReport, with significantly longer documents and summaries. Results show that our models produce significantly higher ROUGE scores than competitive comparisons, including new state-of-the-art results on PubMed. Human evaluation also shows that our models generate more informative summaries with fewer unfaithful errors.

Transformer-based language models rely on positional encoding (PE) to handle token order and support context length extrapolation. However, existing PE methods lack theoretical clarity and rely on limited evaluation metrics to substantiate their extrapolation claims. We propose the Bayesian Attention Mechanism (BAM), a theoretical framework that formulates positional encoding as a prior within a probabilistic model. BAM unifies existing methods (e.g., NoPE and ALiBi) and motivates a new Generalized Gaussian positional prior that substantially improves long-context generalization. Empirically, BAM enables accurate information retrieval at 500times the training context length, outperforming previous state-of-the-art context length generalization in long context retrieval accuracy while maintaining comparable perplexity and introducing minimal additional parameters.

Despite the central role of attention heads in Transformers, we lack tools to understand why a model attends to a particular token. To address this, we study the query-key (QK) space -- the bilinear joint embedding space between queries and keys. We present a contrastive covariance method to decompose the QK space into low-rank, human-interpretable components. It is when features in keys and queries align in these low-rank subspaces that high attention scores are produced. We first study our method both analytically and empirically in a simplified setting. We then apply our method to large language models to identify human-interpretable QK subspaces for categorical semantic features and binding features. Finally, we demonstrate how attention scores can be attributed to our identified features.

Generalizing to longer sentences is important for recent Transformer-based language models. Besides algorithms manipulating explicit position features, the success of Transformers without position encodings (NoPE) provides a new way to overcome the challenge. In this paper, we study the length generalization property of NoPE. We find that although NoPE can extend to longer sequences than the commonly used explicit position encodings, it still has a limited context length. We identify a connection between the failure of NoPE's generalization and the distraction of attention distributions. We propose a parameter-efficient tuning for searching attention heads' best temperature hyper-parameters, which substantially expands NoPE's context size. Experiments on long sequence language modeling, the synthetic passkey retrieval task and real-world long context tasks show that NoPE can achieve competitive performances with state-of-the-art length generalization algorithms. The source code is publicly accessible

Transformer-based architectures have become the prevailing backbone of large language models. However, the quadratic time and memory complexity of self-attention remains a fundamental obstacle to efficient long-context modeling. To address this limitation, recent research has introduced two principal categories of efficient attention mechanisms. Linear attention methods achieve linear complexity through kernel approximations, recurrent formulations, or fastweight dynamics, thereby enabling scalable inference with reduced computational overhead. Sparse attention techniques, in contrast, limit attention computation to selected subsets of tokens based on fixed patterns, block-wise routing, or clustering strategies, enhancing efficiency while preserving contextual coverage. This survey provides a systematic and comprehensive overview of these developments, integrating both algorithmic innovations and hardware-level considerations. In addition, we analyze the incorporation of efficient attention into largescale pre-trained language models, including both architectures built entirely on efficient attention and hybrid designs that combine local and global components. By aligning theoretical foundations with practical deployment strategies, this work aims to serve as a foundational reference for advancing the design of scalable and efficient language models.

We introduce a hierarchical filtering procedure for generative models of sequences on trees, enabling control over the range of positional correlations in the data. Leveraging this controlled setting, we provide evidence that vanilla encoder-only transformer architectures can implement the optimal Belief Propagation algorithm on both root classification and masked language modeling tasks. Correlations at larger distances corresponding to increasing layers of the hierarchy are sequentially included as the network is trained. We analyze how the transformer layers succeed by focusing on attention maps from models trained with varying degrees of filtering. These attention maps show clear evidence for iterative hierarchical reconstruction of correlations, and we can relate these observations to a plausible implementation of the exact inference algorithm for the network sizes considered.

We present a Transformer architecture for long-context language modeling that combines global attention with two biologically inspired components: chunked local attention and a gated FIFO memory mechanism. This unified attention block allows the model to efficiently handle both short-range and long-range dependencies without increasing attention cost quadratically. The memory module persistently stores past token representations using a gated update mechanism inspired by recurrent networks. Rotary positional encoding is applied per attention head to enable directionally disentangled, scale-invariant positional signals. The architecture is implemented entirely from scratch in PyTorch, with no reliance on high-level libraries, enabling transparent and modular experimentation. Our model offers a lightweight and extensible design for tasks such as dialogue modeling, code completion, and document understanding.

Encoder-decoder models have become an effective approach for sequence learning tasks like machine translation, image captioning and speech recognition, but have yet to show competitive results for handwritten text recognition. To this end, we propose an attention-based sequence-to-sequence model. It combines a convolutional neural network as a generic feature extractor with a recurrent neural network to encode both the visual information, as well as the temporal context between characters in the input image, and uses a separate recurrent neural network to decode the actual character sequence. We make experimental comparisons between various attention mechanisms and positional encodings, in order to find an appropriate alignment between the input and output sequence. The model can be trained end-to-end and the optional integration of a hybrid loss allows the encoder to retain an interpretable and usable output, if desired. We achieve competitive results on the IAM and ICFHR2016 READ data sets compared to the state-of-the-art without the use of a language model, and we significantly improve over any recent sequence-to-sequence approaches.

In a conversation or a dialogue process, attention and intention play intrinsic roles. This paper proposes a neural network based approach that models the attention and intention processes. It essentially consists of three recurrent networks. The encoder network is a word-level model representing source side sentences. The intention network is a recurrent network that models the dynamics of the intention process. The decoder network is a recurrent network produces responses to the input from the source side. It is a language model that is dependent on the intention and has an attention mechanism to attend to particular source side words, when predicting a symbol in the response. The model is trained end-to-end without labeling data. Experiments show that this model generates natural responses to user inputs.

Multi-head attention layers, as used in the Transformer neural sequence model, are a powerful alternative to RNNs for moving information across and between sequences. While training these layers is generally fast and simple, due to parallelizability across the length of the sequence, incremental inference (where such paralleization is impossible) is often slow, due to the memory-bandwidth cost of repeatedly loading the large "keys" and "values" tensors. We propose a variant called multi-query attention, where the keys and values are shared across all of the different attention "heads", greatly reducing the size of these tensors and hence the memory bandwidth requirements of incremental decoding. We verify experimentally that the resulting models can indeed be much faster to decode, and incur only minor quality degradation from the baseline.

Human attention modelling has proven, in recent years, to be particularly useful not only for understanding the cognitive processes underlying visual exploration, but also for providing support to artificial intelligence models that aim to solve problems in various domains, including image and video processing, vision-and-language applications, and language modelling. This survey offers a reasoned overview of recent efforts to integrate human attention mechanisms into contemporary deep learning models and discusses future research directions and challenges. For a comprehensive overview on the ongoing research refer to our dedicated repository available at https://github.com/aimagelab/awesome-human-visual-attention.

Large language models have shown remarkable performance across a wide range of language tasks, owing to their exceptional capabilities in context modeling. The most commonly used method of context modeling is full self-attention, as seen in standard decoder-only Transformers. Although powerful, this method can be inefficient for long sequences and may overlook inherent input structures. To address these problems, an alternative approach is parallel context encoding, which splits the context into sub-pieces and encodes them parallelly. Because parallel patterns are not encountered during training, naively applying parallel encoding leads to performance degradation. However, the underlying reasons and potential mitigations are unclear. In this work, we provide a detailed analysis of this issue and identify that unusually high attention entropy can be a key factor. Furthermore, we adopt two straightforward methods to reduce attention entropy by incorporating attention sinks and selective mechanisms. Experiments on various tasks reveal that these methods effectively lower irregular attention entropy and narrow performance gaps. We hope this study can illuminate ways to enhance context modeling mechanisms.

Recent studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of position encoding in transformer architectures. By incorporating positional information, this approach provides essential guidance for modeling dependencies between elements across different sequence positions. We introduce CoPE (a lightweight Complex Positional Encoding), a novel architecture that leverages complex-valued encoding to encode both content and positional information. Our approach replaces traditional positional encodings with complex embeddings where the real part captures semantic content and the imaginary part encodes positional information. We introduce phase-aware attention in the first layer of the transformer model to capture position-dependent patterns, followed by standard attention layers for higher-levels. We show that CoPE doesn't exhibit long term decay and is compatible with linear attention. Experimental evaluation on the GLUE benchmark suggest that our approach achieves superior performance with less computational complexity, compared to RoPE, Sinusoidal and Learned positional encodings.

Scaling pre-trained language models has resulted in large performance gains in various natural language processing tasks but comes with a large cost in memory requirements. Inspired by the position embeddings in transformers, we aim to simplify and reduce the memory footprint of the multi-head attention (MHA) mechanism. We propose an alternative module that uses only a single shared projection matrix and multiple head embeddings (MHE), i.e. one per head. We empirically demonstrate that our MHE attention is substantially more memory efficient compared to alternative attention mechanisms while achieving high predictive performance retention ratio to vanilla MHA on several downstream tasks. MHE attention only requires a negligible fraction of additional parameters (3nd, where n is the number of attention heads and d the size of the head embeddings) compared to a single-head attention, while MHA requires (3n^2-3n)d^2-3nd additional parameters.

Language and vision-language models have shown impressive performance across a wide range of tasks, but their internal mechanisms remain only partly understood. In this work, we study how individual attention heads in text-generative models specialize in specific semantic or visual attributes. Building on an established interpretability method, we reinterpret the practice of probing intermediate activations with the final decoding layer through the lens of signal processing. This lets us analyze multiple samples in a principled way and rank attention heads based on their relevance to target concepts. Our results show consistent patterns of specialization at the head level across both unimodal and multimodal transformers. Remarkably, we find that editing as few as 1% of the heads, selected using our method, can reliably suppress or enhance targeted concepts in the model output. We validate our approach on language tasks such as question answering and toxicity mitigation, as well as vision-language tasks including image classification and captioning. Our findings highlight an interpretable and controllable structure within attention layers, offering simple tools for understanding and editing large-scale generative models.

Attention based Transformer architecture has enabled significant advances in the field of natural language processing. In addition to new pre-training techniques, recent improvements crucially rely on working with a relatively larger embedding dimension for tokens. Unfortunately, this leads to models that are prohibitively large to be employed in the downstream tasks. In this paper we identify one of the important factors contributing to the large embedding size requirement. In particular, our analysis highlights that the scaling between the number of heads and the size of each head in the current architecture gives rise to a low-rank bottleneck in attention heads, causing this limitation. We further validate this in our experiments. As a solution we propose to set the head size of an attention unit to input sequence length, and independent of the number of heads, resulting in multi-head attention layers with provably more expressive power. We empirically show that this allows us to train models with a relatively smaller embedding dimension and with better performance scaling.

Transformers have achieved significant success across various domains, relying on self-attention to capture dependencies. However, the standard first-order attention mechanism is often limited by a low-rank bottleneck, struggling to capture intricate, multi-hop relationships within a single layer. In this paper, we propose the Nexus, a novel architecture designed to enhance representational power through a recursive framework. Unlike standard approaches that use static linear projections for Queries and Keys, Nexus dynamically refines these representations via nested self-attention mechanisms. Specifically, the Query and Key vectors are themselves outputs of inner attention loops, allowing tokens to aggregate global context and model high-order correlations prior to the final attention computation. We enforce a parameter-efficient weight-sharing strategy across recursive steps, ensuring that this enhanced expressivity incurs O(1) additional parameters. We provide theoretical analysis demonstrating that our method breaks the linear bottleneck of standard attention. Empirically, Nexus outperforms standard Transformers on multiple benchmarks.

Current language models often fail to incorporate long contexts efficiently during generation. We show that a major contributor to this issue are attention priors that are likely learned during pre-training: relevant information located earlier in context is attended to less on average. Yet even when models fail to use the information from a relevant document in their response, they still pay preferential attention to that document compared to an irrelevant document at the same position. We leverage this fact to introduce ``attention sorting'': perform one step of decoding, sort documents by the attention they receive (highest attention going last), repeat the process, generate the answer with the newly sorted context. We find that attention sorting improves performance of long context models. Our findings highlight some challenges in using off-the-shelf language models for retrieval augmented generation.

This work presents an analysis of the effectiveness of using standard shallow feed-forward networks to mimic the behavior of the attention mechanism in the original Transformer model, a state-of-the-art architecture for sequence-to-sequence tasks. We substitute key elements of the attention mechanism in the Transformer with simple feed-forward networks, trained using the original components via knowledge distillation. Our experiments, conducted on the IWSLT2017 dataset, reveal the capacity of these "attentionless Transformers" to rival the performance of the original architecture. Through rigorous ablation studies, and experimenting with various replacement network types and sizes, we offer insights that support the viability of our approach. This not only sheds light on the adaptability of shallow feed-forward networks in emulating attention mechanisms but also underscores their potential to streamline complex architectures for sequence-to-sequence tasks.

Neural attention has become central to many state-of-the-art models in natural language processing and related domains. Attention networks are an easy-to-train and effective method for softly simulating alignment; however, the approach does not marginalize over latent alignments in a probabilistic sense. This property makes it difficult to compare attention to other alignment approaches, to compose it with probabilistic models, and to perform posterior inference conditioned on observed data. A related latent approach, hard attention, fixes these issues, but is generally harder to train and less accurate. This work considers variational attention networks, alternatives to soft and hard attention for learning latent variable alignment models, with tighter approximation bounds based on amortized variational inference. We further propose methods for reducing the variance of gradients to make these approaches computationally feasible. Experiments show that for machine translation and visual question answering, inefficient exact latent variable models outperform standard neural attention, but these gains go away when using hard attention based training. On the other hand, variational attention retains most of the performance gain but with training speed comparable to neural attention.

Transformers and large language models (LLMs) have revolutionized machine learning, with attention mechanisms at the core of their success. As the landscape of attention variants expands, so too do the challenges of optimizing their performance, particularly across different hardware platforms. Current optimization strategies are often narrowly focused, requiring extensive manual intervention to accommodate changes in model configurations or hardware environments. In this paper, we introduce AttentionEngine, a comprehensive framework designed to streamline the optimization of attention mechanisms across heterogeneous hardware backends. By decomposing attention computation into modular operations with customizable components, AttentionEngine enables flexible adaptation to diverse algorithmic requirements. The framework further automates kernel optimization through a combination of programmable templates and a robust cross-platform scheduling strategy. Empirical results reveal performance gains of up to 10x on configurations beyond the reach of existing methods. AttentionEngine offers a scalable, efficient foundation for developing and deploying attention mechanisms with minimal manual tuning. Our code has been open-sourced and is available at https://github.com/microsoft/AttentionEngine.

Attention heads are one of the building blocks of large language models (LLMs). Prior work on investigating their operation mostly focused on analyzing their behavior during inference for specific circuits or tasks. In this work, we seek a comprehensive mapping of the operations they implement in a model. We propose MAPS (Mapping Attention head ParameterS), an efficient framework that infers the functionality of attention heads from their parameters, without any model training or inference. We showcase the utility of MAPS for answering two types of questions: (a) given a predefined operation, mapping how strongly heads across the model implement it, and (b) given an attention head, inferring its salient functionality. Evaluating MAPS on 20 operations across 6 popular LLMs shows its estimations correlate with the head's outputs during inference and are causally linked to the model's predictions. Moreover, its mappings reveal attention heads of certain operations that were overlooked in previous studies, and valuable insights on function universality and architecture biases in LLMs. Next, we present an automatic pipeline and analysis that leverage MAPS to characterize the salient operations of a given head. Our pipeline produces plausible operation descriptions for most heads, as assessed by human judgment, while revealing diverse operations.

Large pre-trained neural networks such as BERT have had great recent success in NLP, motivating a growing body of research investigating what aspects of language they are able to learn from unlabeled data. Most recent analysis has focused on model outputs (e.g., language model surprisal) or internal vector representations (e.g., probing classifiers). Complementary to these works, we propose methods for analyzing the attention mechanisms of pre-trained models and apply them to BERT. BERT's attention heads exhibit patterns such as attending to delimiter tokens, specific positional offsets, or broadly attending over the whole sentence, with heads in the same layer often exhibiting similar behaviors. We further show that certain attention heads correspond well to linguistic notions of syntax and coreference. For example, we find heads that attend to the direct objects of verbs, determiners of nouns, objects of prepositions, and coreferent mentions with remarkably high accuracy. Lastly, we propose an attention-based probing classifier and use it to further demonstrate that substantial syntactic information is captured in BERT's attention.

In this work, we model abstractive text summarization using Attentional Encoder-Decoder Recurrent Neural Networks, and show that they achieve state-of-the-art performance on two different corpora. We propose several novel models that address critical problems in summarization that are not adequately modeled by the basic architecture, such as modeling key-words, capturing the hierarchy of sentence-to-word structure, and emitting words that are rare or unseen at training time. Our work shows that many of our proposed models contribute to further improvement in performance. We also propose a new dataset consisting of multi-sentence summaries, and establish performance benchmarks for further research.

In the Transformer model, "self-attention" combines information from attended embeddings into the representation of the focal embedding in the next layer. Thus, across layers of the Transformer, information originating from different tokens gets increasingly mixed. This makes attention weights unreliable as explanations probes. In this paper, we consider the problem of quantifying this flow of information through self-attention. We propose two methods for approximating the attention to input tokens given attention weights, attention rollout and attention flow, as post hoc methods when we use attention weights as the relative relevance of the input tokens. We show that these methods give complementary views on the flow of information, and compared to raw attention, both yield higher correlations with importance scores of input tokens obtained using an ablation method and input gradients.

We introduce a new neural architecture to learn the conditional probability of an output sequence with elements that are discrete tokens corresponding to positions in an input sequence. Such problems cannot be trivially addressed by existent approaches such as sequence-to-sequence and Neural Turing Machines, because the number of target classes in each step of the output depends on the length of the input, which is variable. Problems such as sorting variable sized sequences, and various combinatorial optimization problems belong to this class. Our model solves the problem of variable size output dictionaries using a recently proposed mechanism of neural attention. It differs from the previous attention attempts in that, instead of using attention to blend hidden units of an encoder to a context vector at each decoder step, it uses attention as a pointer to select a member of the input sequence as the output. We call this architecture a Pointer Net (Ptr-Net). We show Ptr-Nets can be used to learn approximate solutions to three challenging geometric problems -- finding planar convex hulls, computing Delaunay triangulations, and the planar Travelling Salesman Problem -- using training examples alone. Ptr-Nets not only improve over sequence-to-sequence with input attention, but also allow us to generalize to variable size output dictionaries. We show that the learnt models generalize beyond the maximum lengths they were trained on. We hope our results on these tasks will encourage a broader exploration of neural learning for discrete problems.

Attention-based architectures, in particular transformers, are at the heart of a technological revolution. Interestingly, in addition to helping obtain state-of-the-art results on a wide range of applications, the attention mechanism intrinsically provides meaningful insights on the internal behavior of the model. Can these insights be used as explanations? Debate rages on. In this paper, we mathematically study a simple attention-based architecture and pinpoint the differences between post-hoc and attention-based explanations. We show that they provide quite different results, and that, despite their limitations, post-hoc methods are capable of capturing more useful insights than merely examining the attention weights.

We investigate the CLIP image encoder by analyzing how individual model components affect the final representation. We decompose the image representation as a sum across individual image patches, model layers, and attention heads, and use CLIP's text representation to interpret the summands. Interpreting the attention heads, we characterize each head's role by automatically finding text representations that span its output space, which reveals property-specific roles for many heads (e.g. location or shape). Next, interpreting the image patches, we uncover an emergent spatial localization within CLIP. Finally, we use this understanding to remove spurious features from CLIP and to create a strong zero-shot image segmenter. Our results indicate that a scalable understanding of transformer models is attainable and can be used to repair and improve models.

Visual search is important in our daily life. The efficient allocation of visual attention is critical to effectively complete visual search tasks. Prior research has predominantly modelled the spatial allocation of visual attention in images at the pixel level, e.g. using a saliency map. However, emerging evidence shows that visual attention is guided by objects rather than pixel intensities. This paper introduces the Object-level Attention Transformer (OAT), which predicts human scanpaths as they search for a target object within a cluttered scene of distractors. OAT uses an encoder-decoder architecture. The encoder captures information about the position and appearance of the objects within an image and about the target. The decoder predicts the gaze scanpath as a sequence of object fixations, by integrating output features from both the encoder and decoder. We also propose a new positional encoding that better reflects spatial relationships between objects. We evaluated OAT on the Amazon book cover dataset and a new dataset for visual search that we collected. OAT's predicted gaze scanpaths align more closely with human gaze patterns, compared to predictions by algorithms based on spatial attention on both established metrics and a novel behavioural-based metric. Our results demonstrate the generalization ability of OAT, as it accurately predicts human scanpaths for unseen layouts and target objects.

Modern sequence modeling is dominated by two families: Transformers, whose self-attention can access arbitrary elements of the visible sequence, and structured state-space models, which propagate information through an explicit recurrent state. These mechanisms face different limitations on long contexts: when attention is diffuse, the influence of individual tokens is diluted across the effective support, while recurrent state propagation can lose long-range sensitivity unless information is actively preserved. As a result, both mechanisms face challenges in preserving and selectively retrieving information over long contexts. We propose Sessa, a decoder that places attention inside a recurrent feedback path. This creates many attention-based paths through which past tokens can influence future states, rather than relying on a single attention read or a single recurrent chain. We prove that, under explicit assumptions and matched regimes, Sessa admits power-law memory tails O(ell^{-β}) for 0 < β< 1, with slower decay than in the corresponding Transformer and Mamba-style baselines. We further give an explicit construction that achieves this power-law rate. Under the same assumptions, Sessa is the only model class among those considered that realizes flexible selective retrieval, including profiles whose influence does not decay with distance. Consistent with this theoretical advantage, across matched experiments, Sessa achieves the strongest performance on long-context benchmarks while remaining competitive with Transformer and Mamba-style baselines on short-context language modeling.

We present a novel framework for training large language models with continuously adjustable internal representations that span the full spectrum from localist (interpretable, rule-based) to distributed (generalizable, efficient) encodings. The key innovation is a locality dial, a tunable parameter that dynamically controls the degree of localization during both training and inference without requiring model retraining. This is achieved through group sparsity penalties on attention mechanisms, information-theoretic anchor design, and dynamic rule injection. We provide rigorous mathematical proofs establishing explicit threshold conditions under which attention provably concentrates on semantically relevant blocks, with exponential bounds on attention entropy and pointer fidelity. Specifically, we prove that when group sparsity penalties exceed certain threshold values, the model's attention mechanisms concentrate on semantically relevant blocks, achieving low entropy and high fidelity with negligible error. This framework enables practitioners to continuously interpolate between interpretable and high-performance modes, supporting applications in regulated domains requiring both transparency and capability.

Image captioning, like many tasks involving vision and language, currently relies on Transformer-based architectures for extracting the semantics in an image and translating it into linguistically coherent descriptions. Although successful, the attention operator only considers a weighted summation of projections of the current input sample, therefore ignoring the relevant semantic information which can come from the joint observation of other samples. In this paper, we devise a network which can perform attention over activations obtained while processing other training samples, through a prototypical memory model. Our memory models the distribution of past keys and values through the definition of prototype vectors which are both discriminative and compact. Experimentally, we assess the performance of the proposed model on the COCO dataset, in comparison with carefully designed baselines and state-of-the-art approaches, and by investigating the role of each of the proposed components. We demonstrate that our proposal can increase the performance of an encoder-decoder Transformer by 3.7 CIDEr points both when training in cross-entropy only and when fine-tuning with self-critical sequence training. Source code and trained models are available at: https://github.com/aimagelab/PMA-Net.

Transformers are powerful sequence models, but require time and memory that grows quadratically with the sequence length. In this paper we introduce sparse factorizations of the attention matrix which reduce this to O(n n). We also introduce a) a variation on architecture and initialization to train deeper networks, b) the recomputation of attention matrices to save memory, and c) fast attention kernels for training. We call networks with these changes Sparse Transformers, and show they can model sequences tens of thousands of timesteps long using hundreds of layers. We use the same architecture to model images, audio, and text from raw bytes, setting a new state of the art for density modeling of Enwik8, CIFAR-10, and ImageNet-64. We generate unconditional samples that demonstrate global coherence and great diversity, and show it is possible in principle to use self-attention to model sequences of length one million or more.

While the successes of transformers across many domains are indisputable, accurate understanding of the learning mechanics is still largely lacking. Their capabilities have been probed on benchmarks which include a variety of structured and reasoning tasks -- but mathematical understanding is lagging substantially behind. Recent lines of work have begun studying representational aspects of this question: that is, the size/depth/complexity of attention-based networks to perform certain tasks. However, there is no guarantee the learning dynamics will converge to the constructions proposed. In our paper, we provide fine-grained mechanistic understanding of how transformers learn "semantic structure", understood as capturing co-occurrence structure of words. Precisely, we show, through a combination of experiments on synthetic data modeled by Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), Wikipedia data, and mathematical analysis that the embedding layer and the self-attention layer encode the topical structure. In the former case, this manifests as higher average inner product of embeddings between same-topic words. In the latter, it manifests as higher average pairwise attention between same-topic words. The mathematical results involve several assumptions to make the analysis tractable, which we verify on data, and might be of independent interest as well.

Attention mechanisms are ubiquitous components in neural architectures applied to natural language processing. In addition to yielding gains in predictive accuracy, attention weights are often claimed to confer interpretability, purportedly useful both for providing insights to practitioners and for explaining why a model makes its decisions to stakeholders. We call the latter use of attention mechanisms into question by demonstrating a simple method for training models to produce deceptive attention masks. Our method diminishes the total weight assigned to designated impermissible tokens, even when the models can be shown to nevertheless rely on these features to drive predictions. Across multiple models and tasks, our approach manipulates attention weights while paying surprisingly little cost in accuracy. Through a human study, we show that our manipulated attention-based explanations deceive people into thinking that predictions from a model biased against gender minorities do not rely on the gender. Consequently, our results cast doubt on attention's reliability as a tool for auditing algorithms in the context of fairness and accountability.

To be discoverable in an embedding-based search process, each part of a document should be reflected in its embedding representation. To quantify any potential reflection biases, we introduce a permutation-based evaluation framework. With this, we observe that state-of-the-art embedding models exhibit systematic positional and language biases when documents are longer and consist of multiple segments. Specifically, early segments and segments in higher-resource languages like English are over-represented, while later segments and segments in lower-resource languages are marginalized. In our further analysis, we find that the positional bias stems from front-loaded attention distributions in pooling-token embeddings, where early tokens receive more attention. To mitigate this issue, we introduce an inference-time attention calibration method that redistributes attention more evenly across document positions, increasing discoverabiltiy of later segments. Our evaluation framework and attention calibration is available at https://github.com/impresso/fair-sentence-transformers

Transformer architectures rely on explicit position encodings in order to preserve a notion of word order. In this paper, we argue that existing work does not fully utilize position information. For example, the initial proposal of a sinusoid embedding is fixed and not learnable. In this paper, we first review absolute position embeddings and existing methods for relative position embeddings. We then propose new techniques that encourage increased interaction between query, key and relative position embeddings in the self-attention mechanism. Our most promising approach is a generalization of the absolute position embedding, improving results on SQuAD1.1 compared to previous position embeddings approaches. In addition, we address the inductive property of whether a position embedding can be robust enough to handle long sequences. We demonstrate empirically that our relative position embedding method is reasonably generalized and robust from the inductive perspective. Finally, we show that our proposed method can be adopted as a near drop-in replacement for improving the accuracy of large models with a small computational budget.

The attention mechanism is a critical component of Large Language Models (LLMs) that allows tokens in a sequence to interact with each other, but is order-invariant. Incorporating position encoding (PE) makes it possible to address by position, such as attending to the i-th token. However, current PE methods use token counts to derive position, and thus cannot generalize to higher levels of abstraction, such as attending to the i-th sentence. In this paper, we propose a new position encoding method, Contextual Position Encoding (CoPE), that allows positions to be conditioned on context by incrementing position only on certain tokens determined by the model. This allows more general position addressing such as attending to the i-th particular word, noun, or sentence. We show that CoPE can solve the selective copy, counting and Flip-Flop tasks where popular position embeddings fail, and improves perplexity on language modeling and coding tasks.

Transformers have emerged as the architecture of choice for many state-of-the-art AI models, showcasing exceptional performance across a wide range of AI applications. However, the memory demands imposed by Transformers limit their ability to handle long sequences, thereby creating challenges for tasks involving extended sequences or long-term dependencies. We present a distinct approach, Ring Attention, which leverages blockwise computation of self-attention to distribute long sequences across multiple devices while concurrently overlapping the communication of key-value blocks with the computation of blockwise attention. By processing longer input sequences while maintaining memory efficiency, Ring Attention enables training and inference of sequences that are device count times longer than those of prior memory-efficient Transformers, effectively eliminating the memory constraints imposed by individual devices. Extensive experiments on language modeling tasks demonstrate the effectiveness of Ring Attention in allowing large sequence input size and improving performance.

Attention architectures are widely used; they recently gained renewed popularity with Transformers yielding a streak of state of the art results. Yet, the geometrical implications of softmax-attention remain largely unexplored. In this work we highlight the limitations of constraining attention weights to the probability simplex and the resulting convex hull of value vectors. We show that Transformers are sequence length dependent biased towards token isolation at initialization and contrast Transformers to simple max- and sum-pooling - two strong baselines rarely reported. We propose to replace the softmax in self-attention with normalization, yielding a hyperparameter and data-bias robust, generally applicable architecture. We support our insights with empirical results from more than 25,000 trained models. All results and implementations are made available.

The performance of Large Language Models (LLMs) is significantly sensitive to the contextual position of information in the input. To investigate the mechanism behind this positional bias, our extensive experiments reveal a consistent phenomenon we term the attention basin: when presented with a sequence of structured items (e.g., retrieved documents or few-shot examples), models systematically assign higher attention to the items at the beginning and end of the sequence, while neglecting those in the middle. Crucially, our analysis further reveals that allocating higher attention to critical information is key to enhancing model performance. Based on these insights, we introduce Attention-Driven Reranking (AttnRank), a two-stage framework that (i) estimates a model's intrinsic positional attention preferences using a small calibration set, and (ii) reorders retrieved documents or few-shot examples to align the most salient content with these high-attention positions. AttnRank is a model-agnostic, training-free, and plug-and-play method with minimal computational overhead. Experiments on multi-hop QA and few-shot in-context learning tasks demonstrate that AttnRank achieves substantial improvements across 10 large language models of varying architectures and scales, without modifying model parameters or training procedures.

In recent years, many interpretability methods have been proposed to help interpret the internal states of Transformer-models, at different levels of precision and complexity. Here, to analyze encoder-decoder Transformers, we propose a simple, new method: DecoderLens. Inspired by the LogitLens (for decoder-only Transformers), this method involves allowing the decoder to cross-attend representations of intermediate encoder layers instead of using the final encoder output, as is normally done in encoder-decoder models. The method thus maps previously uninterpretable vector representations to human-interpretable sequences of words or symbols. We report results from the DecoderLens applied to models trained on question answering, logical reasoning, speech recognition and machine translation. The DecoderLens reveals several specific subtasks that are solved at low or intermediate layers, shedding new light on the information flow inside the encoder component of this important class of models.

Transformers struggle with length generalisation, displaying poor performance even on basic tasks. We test whether these limitations can be explained through two key failures of the self-attention mechanism. The first is the inability to fully remove irrelevant information. The second is tied to position, even if the dot product between a key and query is highly negative (i.e. an irrelevant key) learned positional biases may unintentionally up-weight such information - dangerous when distances become out of distribution. Put together, these two failure cases lead to compounding generalisation difficulties. We test whether they can be mitigated through the combination of a) selective sparsity - completely removing irrelevant keys from the attention softmax and b) contextualised relative distance - distance is only considered as between the query and the keys that matter. We show how refactoring the attention mechanism with these two mitigations in place can substantially improve generalisation capabilities of decoder only transformers.

The ability to process long contexts is crucial for many natural language processing tasks, yet it remains a significant challenge. While substantial progress has been made in enhancing the efficiency of attention mechanisms, there is still a gap in understanding how attention heads function in long-context settings. In this paper, we observe that while certain heads consistently attend to local information only, others swing between attending to local and long-context information depending on the query. This raises the question: can we identify which heads require long-context information to predict the next token accurately? We demonstrate that it's possible to predict which heads are crucial for long-context processing using only local keys. The core idea here is to exploit a simple model for the long-context scores via second moment approximations. These findings unveil simple properties of attention in the context of long sequences, and open the door to potentially significant gains in efficiency.

Attention matrices are fundamental to transformer research, supporting a broad range of applications including interpretability, visualization, manipulation, and distillation. Yet, most existing analyses focus on individual attention heads or layers, failing to account for the model's global behavior. While prior efforts have extended attention formulations across multiple heads via averaging and matrix multiplications or incorporated components such as normalization and FFNs, a unified and complete representation that encapsulates all transformer blocks is still lacking. We address this gap by introducing TensorLens, a novel formulation that captures the entire transformer as a single, input-dependent linear operator expressed through a high-order attention-interaction tensor. This tensor jointly encodes attention, FFNs, activations, normalizations, and residual connections, offering a theoretically coherent and expressive linear representation of the model's computation. TensorLens is theoretically grounded and our empirical validation shows that it yields richer representations than previous attention-aggregation methods. Our experiments demonstrate that the attention tensor can serve as a powerful foundation for developing tools aimed at interpretability and model understanding. Our code is attached as a supplementary.

We present a framework for using transformer networks as universal computers by programming them with specific weights and placing them in a loop. Our input sequence acts as a punchcard, consisting of instructions and memory for data read/writes. We demonstrate that a constant number of encoder layers can emulate basic computing blocks, including embedding edit operations, non-linear functions, function calls, program counters, and conditional branches. Using these building blocks, we emulate a small instruction-set computer. This allows us to map iterative algorithms to programs that can be executed by a looped, 13-layer transformer. We show how this transformer, instructed by its input, can emulate a basic calculator, a basic linear algebra library, and in-context learning algorithms that employ backpropagation. Our work highlights the versatility of the attention mechanism, and demonstrates that even shallow transformers can execute full-fledged, general-purpose programs.

Transformers have become the go-to architecture for language and vision tasks, yet their theoretical properties, especially memorization capacity, remain elusive. This paper investigates the memorization abilities of multi-head attention mechanisms, examining how many example sequences they can memorize, as a function of the number of heads and sequence length. Motivated by experimental findings on vision transformers, we introduce novel assumptions about the linear independence of input data, distinct from the commonly used general-position assumption. Under these assumptions, we demonstrate that an attention layer with H heads, dimension d, and context size n < d, featuring Theta(Hd^2) parameters, can memorize Omega(Hn) examples. Our analysis sheds light on how different attention heads handle various example sequences, aided by the softmax operator's saturation property. We validate our findings through experiments on synthetic data.

An attentional mechanism has lately been used to improve neural machine translation (NMT) by selectively focusing on parts of the source sentence during translation. However, there has been little work exploring useful architectures for attention-based NMT. This paper examines two simple and effective classes of attentional mechanism: a global approach which always attends to all source words and a local one that only looks at a subset of source words at a time. We demonstrate the effectiveness of both approaches over the WMT translation tasks between English and German in both directions. With local attention, we achieve a significant gain of 5.0 BLEU points over non-attentional systems which already incorporate known techniques such as dropout. Our ensemble model using different attention architectures has established a new state-of-the-art result in the WMT'15 English to German translation task with 25.9 BLEU points, an improvement of 1.0 BLEU points over the existing best system backed by NMT and an n-gram reranker.

Mechanistic Interpretability (MI) seeks to explain how neural networks implement their capabilities, but the scale of Large Language Models (LLMs) has limited prior MI work in Machine Translation (MT) to word-level analyses. We study sentence-level MT from a mechanistic perspective by analyzing attention heads to understand how LLMs internally encode and distribute translation functions. We decompose MT into two subtasks: producing text in the target language (i.e. target language identification) and preserving the input sentence's meaning (i.e. sentence equivalence). Across three families of open-source models and 20 translation directions, we find that distinct, sparse sets of attention heads specialize in each subtask. Based on this insight, we construct subtask-specific steering vectors and show that modifying just 1% of the relevant heads enables instruction-free MT performance comparable to instruction-based prompting, while ablating these heads selectively disrupts their corresponding translation functions.

Attention is a fundamental component behind the remarkable achievements of large language models (LLMs). However, our current understanding of the attention mechanism, especially regarding how attention distributions are established, remains limited. Inspired by recent studies that explore the presence of attention sink in the initial token, which receives disproportionately large attention scores despite their lack of semantic importance, this work delves deeper into this phenomenon. We aim to provide a more profound understanding of the existence of attention sinks within LLMs and to uncover ways to enhance the achievable accuracy of LLMs by directly optimizing the attention distributions, without the need for weight finetuning. Specifically, this work begins with comprehensive visualizations of the attention distributions in LLMs during inference across various inputs and tasks. Based on these visualizations, to the best of our knowledge, we are the first to discover that (1) attention sinks occur not only at the start of sequences but also within later tokens of the input, and (2) not all attention sinks have a positive impact on the achievable accuracy of LLMs. Building upon our findings, we propose a training-free Attention Calibration Technique (ACT) that automatically optimizes the attention distributions on the fly during inference in an input-adaptive manner. Extensive experiments validate that ACT consistently enhances the accuracy of various LLMs across different applications. Specifically, ACT achieves an average improvement of up to 7.30% in accuracy across different datasets when applied to Llama-30B. Our code is available at https://github.com/GATECH-EIC/ACT.

Motivated by the factorization inherent in the original fast multipole method and the improved fast Gauss transform we introduce a factorable form of attention that operates efficiently in high dimensions. This approach reduces the computational and memory complexity of the attention mechanism in transformers from O(N^2) to O(N). In comparison to previous attempts, our work presents a linearly scaled attention mechanism that maintains the full representation of the attention matrix without compromising on sparsification and incorporates the all-to-all relationship between tokens. We explore the properties of our new attention metric and conduct tests in various standard settings. Results indicate that our attention mechanism has a robust performance and holds significant promise for diverse applications where self-attention is used.

Attention is a powerful and ubiquitous mechanism for allowing neural models to focus on particular salient pieces of information by taking their weighted average when making predictions. In particular, multi-headed attention is a driving force behind many recent state-of-the-art NLP models such as Transformer-based MT models and BERT. These models apply multiple attention mechanisms in parallel, with each attention "head" potentially focusing on different parts of the input, which makes it possible to express sophisticated functions beyond the simple weighted average. In this paper we make the surprising observation that even if models have been trained using multiple heads, in practice, a large percentage of attention heads can be removed at test time without significantly impacting performance. In fact, some layers can even be reduced to a single head. We further examine greedy algorithms for pruning down models, and the potential speed, memory efficiency, and accuracy improvements obtainable therefrom. Finally, we analyze the results with respect to which parts of the model are more reliant on having multiple heads, and provide precursory evidence that training dynamics play a role in the gains provided by multi-head attention.

Large language models (LLMs) have achieved remarkable success in contextual knowledge understanding. In this paper, we show that these concentrated massive values consistently emerge in specific regions of attention queries (Q) and keys (K) while not having such patterns in values (V) in various modern transformer-based LLMs (Q, K, and V mean the representations output by the query, key, and value layers respectively). Through extensive experiments, we further demonstrate that these massive values play a critical role in interpreting contextual knowledge (knowledge obtained from the current context window) rather than in retrieving parametric knowledge stored within the model's parameters. Our further investigation of quantization strategies reveals that ignoring these massive values leads to a pronounced drop in performance on tasks requiring rich contextual understanding, aligning with our analysis. Finally, we trace the emergence of concentrated massive values and find that such concentration is caused by Rotary Positional Encoding (RoPE), which has appeared since the first layers. These findings shed new light on how Q and K operate in LLMs and offer practical insights for model design and optimization. The Code is Available at https://github.com/MingyuJ666/Rope_with_LLM.

Transformer encoders are widely deployed in large-scale web services for natural language understanding tasks such as text classification, semantic retrieval, and content ranking. However, their high inference latency and memory consumption pose significant challenges for real-time serving and scalability. These limitations stem largely from architectural redundancy, particularly in the attention module. The inherent parameter redundancy of the attention mechanism, coupled with the fact that its attention heads operate with a degree of independence, makes it particularly amenable to structured model compression. In this paper, we propose SHRP (Specialized Head Routing and Pruning), a novel structured pruning framework that automatically identifies and removes redundant attention heads while preserving most of the model's accuracy and compatibility. SHRP introduces Expert Attention, a modular design that treats each attention head as an independent expert, followed by a lightweight shared expander feed-forward network that refines their outputs. The framework employs a unified Top-1 usage-driven mechanism to jointly perform dynamic routing during training and deterministic pruning at deployment. Experimental results on the GLUE benchmark using a BERT-base encoder show that SHRP achieves 93% of the original model accuracy while reducing parameters by 48 percent. Under an extreme compression scenario where 11/12 of the layers are pruned, the model still maintains 84% accuracy and delivers a 4.2x throughput gain while reducing computation to as low as 11.5 percent of the original FLOPs, demonstrating its practical utility for large-scale and latency-sensitive web deployments.

The design choices in the Transformer attention mechanism, including weak inductive bias and quadratic computational complexity, have limited its application for modeling long sequences. In this paper, we introduce Mega, a simple, theoretically grounded, single-head gated attention mechanism equipped with (exponential) moving average to incorporate inductive bias of position-aware local dependencies into the position-agnostic attention mechanism. We further propose a variant of Mega that offers linear time and space complexity yet yields only minimal quality loss, by efficiently splitting the whole sequence into multiple chunks with fixed length. Extensive experiments on a wide range of sequence modeling benchmarks, including the Long Range Arena, neural machine translation, auto-regressive language modeling, and image and speech classification, show that Mega achieves significant improvements over other sequence models, including variants of Transformers and recent state space models.

Transformers have impressive generalization capabilities on tasks with a fixed context length. However, they fail to generalize to sequences of arbitrary length, even for seemingly simple tasks such as duplicating a string. Moreover, simply training on longer sequences is inefficient due to the quadratic computation complexity of the global attention mechanism. In this work, we demonstrate that this failure mode is linked to positional encodings being out-of-distribution for longer sequences (even for relative encodings) and introduce a novel family of positional encodings that can overcome this problem. Concretely, our randomized positional encoding scheme simulates the positions of longer sequences and randomly selects an ordered subset to fit the sequence's length. Our large-scale empirical evaluation of 6000 models across 15 algorithmic reasoning tasks shows that our method allows Transformers to generalize to sequences of unseen length (increasing test accuracy by 12.0% on average).

The deployment of large language models (LLMs) is often hindered by the extensive memory requirements of the Key-Value (KV) cache, especially as context lengths increase. Existing approaches to reduce the KV cache size involve either fine-tuning the model to learn a compression strategy or leveraging attention scores to reduce the sequence length. We analyse the attention distributions in decoder-only Transformers-based models and observe that attention allocation patterns stay consistent across most layers. Surprisingly, we find a clear correlation between the L_2 and the attention scores over cached KV pairs, where a low L_2 of a key embedding usually leads to a high attention score during decoding. This finding indicates that the influence of a KV pair is potentially determined by the key embedding itself before being queried. Based on this observation, we compress the KV cache based on the L_2 of key embeddings. Our experimental results show that this simple strategy can reduce the KV cache size by 50% on language modelling and needle-in-a-haystack tasks and 90% on passkey retrieval tasks without losing accuracy.

Attention-free language models that combine gating and convolutions are growing in popularity due to their efficiency and increasingly competitive performance. To better understand these architectures, we pretrain a suite of 17 attention and "gated-convolution" language models, finding that SoTA gated-convolution architectures still underperform attention by up to 2.1 perplexity points on the Pile. In fine-grained analysis, we find 82% of the gap is explained by each model's ability to recall information that is previously mentioned in-context, e.g. "Hakuna Matata means no worries Hakuna Matata it means no" rightarrow "??". On this task, termed "associative recall", we find that attention outperforms gated-convolutions by a large margin: a 70M parameter attention model outperforms a 1.4 billion parameter gated-convolution model on associative recall. This is surprising because prior work shows gated convolutions can perfectly solve synthetic tests for AR capability. To close the gap between synthetics and real language, we develop a new formalization of the task called multi-query associative recall (MQAR) that better reflects actual language. We perform an empirical and theoretical study of MQAR that elucidates differences in the parameter-efficiency of attention and gated-convolution recall. Informed by our analysis, we evaluate simple convolution-attention hybrids and show that hybrids with input-dependent sparse attention patterns can close 97.4% of the gap to attention, while maintaining sub-quadratic scaling. Our code is accessible at: https://github.com/HazyResearch/zoology.

When reading books, humans focus primarily on the current page, flipping back to recap prior context only when necessary. Similarly, we demonstrate that Large Language Models (LLMs) can learn to dynamically determine when to attend to global context. We propose All-or-Here Attention (AHA), which utilizes a binary router per attention head to dynamically toggle between full attention and local sliding window attention for each token. Our results indicate that with a window size of 256 tokens, up to 93\% of the original full attention operations can be replaced by sliding window attention without performance loss. Furthermore, by evaluating AHA across various window sizes, we identify a long-tail distribution in context dependency, where the necessity for full attention decays rapidly as the local window expands. By decoupling local processing from global access, AHA reveals that full attention is largely redundant, and that efficient inference requires only on-demand access to the global context.

Despite the recent progress in long-context language models, it remains elusive how transformer-based models exhibit the capability to retrieve relevant information from arbitrary locations within the long context. This paper aims to address this question. Our systematic investigation across a wide spectrum of models reveals that a special type of attention heads are largely responsible for retrieving information, which we dub retrieval heads. We identify intriguing properties of retrieval heads:(1) universal: all the explored models with long-context capability have a set of retrieval heads; (2) sparse: only a small portion (less than 5\%) of the attention heads are retrieval. (3) intrinsic: retrieval heads already exist in models pretrained with short context. When extending the context length by continual pretraining, it is still the same set of heads that perform information retrieval. (4) dynamically activated: take Llama-2 7B for example, 12 retrieval heads always attend to the required information no matter how the context is changed. The rest of the retrieval heads are activated in different contexts. (5) causal: completely pruning retrieval heads leads to failure in retrieving relevant information and results in hallucination, while pruning random non-retrieval heads does not affect the model's retrieval ability. We further show that retrieval heads strongly influence chain-of-thought (CoT) reasoning, where the model needs to frequently refer back the question and previously-generated context. Conversely, tasks where the model directly generates the answer using its intrinsic knowledge are less impacted by masking out retrieval heads. These observations collectively explain which internal part of the model seeks information from the input tokens. We believe our insights will foster future research on reducing hallucination, improving reasoning, and compressing the KV cache.

We introduce Transformer-VQ, a decoder-only transformer computing softmax-based dense self-attention in linear time. Transformer-VQ's efficient attention is enabled by vector-quantized keys and a novel caching mechanism. In large-scale experiments, Transformer-VQ is shown highly competitive in quality, with strong results on Enwik8 (0.99 bpb), PG-19 (26.6 ppl), and ImageNet64 (3.16 bpb). Code: https://github.com/transformer-vq/transformer_vq

Attention mechanisms have improved the performance of NLP tasks while allowing models to remain explainable. Self-attention is currently widely used, however interpretability is difficult due to the numerous attention distributions. Recent work has shown that model representations can benefit from label-specific information, while facilitating interpretation of predictions. We introduce the Label Attention Layer: a new form of self-attention where attention heads represent labels. We test our novel layer by running constituency and dependency parsing experiments and show our new model obtains new state-of-the-art results for both tasks on both the Penn Treebank (PTB) and Chinese Treebank. Additionally, our model requires fewer self-attention layers compared to existing work. Finally, we find that the Label Attention heads learn relations between syntactic categories and show pathways to analyze errors.

We present a novel framework for training large language models with continuously adjustable internal representations that span the full spectrum from localist (interpretable, rule-based) to distributed (generalizable, efficient) encodings. The key innovations are (1) a locality dial, a tunable parameter that dynamically controls the degree of localization during both training and inference without requiring model retraining, (2) an information-theoretic recruitment mechanism that adaptively allocates semantic blocks as needed, eliminating the requirement for complete domain knowledge at initialization, and (3) a hierarchical recruitment framework that extends capacity allocation to entire specialized LLMs, enabling multi-granularity architectural adaptation. This is achieved through group sparsity penalties on attention mechanisms, information-theoretic anchor design, dynamic rule injection, and principled recruitment criteria based on penalized likelihood with explicit units. We provide rigorous mathematical results establishing explicit threshold conditions under which attention provably concentrates on semantically relevant blocks at stationary points, with exact bounds on attention entropy and pointer fidelity. The hierarchical recruitment mechanism provides convergence guarantees at both the block level (fine-grained, within-LLM) and the LLM level (coarse-grained, cross-domain), ensuring the system discovers semantic partitions that balance model complexity against data encoding efficiency. This framework enables practitioners to continuously interpolate between interpretable and high-performance modes while adapting architectural capacity at multiple granularities, supporting applications in regulated domains requiring both transparency and capability.

Large language models (LLMs) process entire input contexts indiscriminately, which is inefficient in cases where the information required to answer a query is localized within the context. We present dynamic context cutoff, a human-inspired method enabling LLMs to self-terminate processing upon acquiring sufficient task-relevant information. Through analysis of model internals, we discover that specific attention heads inherently encode "sufficiency signals" - detectable through lightweight classifiers - that predict when critical information has been processed. This reveals a new efficiency paradigm: models' internal understanding naturally dictates processing needs rather than external compression heuristics. Comprehensive experiments across six QA datasets (up to 40K tokens) with three model families (LLaMA/Qwen/Mistral, 1B0-70B) demonstrate 1.33x average token reduction while improving accuracy by 1.3%. Furthermore, our method demonstrates better performance with the same rate of token reduction compared to other context efficiency methods. Additionally, we observe an emergent scaling phenomenon: while smaller models require require probing for sufficiency detection, larger models exhibit intrinsic self-assessment capabilities through prompting.

In this paper, we aim to do code completion based on implementing a Neural Network from Li et. al.. Our contribution is that we use an encoding that is in-between character and word encoding called Byte Pair Encoding (BPE). We use this on the source code files treating them as natural text without first going through the abstract syntax tree (AST). We have implemented two models: an attention-enhanced LSTM and a pointer network, where the pointer network was originally introduced to solve out of vocabulary problems. We are interested to see if BPE can replace the need for the pointer network for code completion.